The Path from British India to Independent India
Note = This essay provides a brief and non-linear overview of significant events, relying on existing data. It is not a definitive analysis and might lack exhaustive details. For a thorough understanding, readers are encouraged to refer to more comprehensive sources on the topic.
Synopsis
- Introduction
- Reforms of 1909 and 1919
- Purna Swaraj
- Simon Commission and Its Impacts
- Government of India Act of 1935
- Dalit Political Representation
- Gandhi's Role
- The Cabinet Mission Plan
- Constituent Assembly
- Echoes of Division
- Conclusion
- Reference
Introduction
The journey to Indian independence was a complex mix of political reforms, social movements, and ideological struggles. Key events like the Minto-Morley and Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms increased Indian representation for governance. The demand for "Purna Swaraj" united nationalists. The Simon Commission and the Government of India Act of 1935 further influenced discussions about autonomy and representation. Rising communal tensions eventually led to the partition of India. The emergence of the Constituent Assembly was a crucial moment in drafting a new Constitution for India. Let us delve into the many layers of India's path from British India to Independent India.
Reforms of 1909 and 1919
The Indian political landscape changed with the Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909. These reforms introduced indirect elections through an Electoral College, increased Indian representation in councils, and created separate constituencies for Muslims, reserving 25% of the seats for them. These changes were formalized in the Indian Councils Act of 1909. Later, the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 took another step toward Indian self-governance by establishing the diarchy system. This allowed limited powers for Indian representatives in legislatures and increased self-rule at the provincial level. Although these reforms also granted separate electorates to Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Europeans, they ultimately did not allow for full autonomy.
Purna Swaraj
In 1920, a significant meeting in Tashkent led to the establishment of the Indian Communist Party, which aligned with the objectives of the Communist International (Comintern) to promote global communism under Soviet leadership. M.N.Roy became a prominent advocate for communist ideas in India.
In 1921, during the Indian National Congress meeting in Ahmedabad, Hasrat Mohani and Swami Kumaranand proposed the concept of "Purna Swaraj" (Complete Independence) for India. This idea resonated with the goals of the newly formed Communist Party, although Gandhi did not support it at the time. Later, in 1929, during the Congress session in Lahore led by Jawaharlal Nehru, the demand for complete independence was officially adopted. Nehru hoisted the Indian tricolor flag for the first time on December 31, 1929. The Congress also declared January 26 as "Purna Swaraj" Day, marked by public meetings and flag hoisting throughout India.
Simon Commission and Its Impacts
The Simon Commission was set up in 1927 to review the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms but faced strong boycotts from Indian political parties, including the Indian National Congress, because it had no Indian representatives. In 1930, the Commission suggested giving more power to provinces, but British governors still kept emergency powers, meaning full independence remained elusive. The protests that followed Lala Lajpat Rai’s death, from injuries sustained during a protest against the Simon Commission, fueled the demand for complete independence. His death also inspired revolutionary figures like Bhagat Singh to seek revenge.
Note = Although Bhagat Singh respected Lala Lajpat Rai as a leader, he later criticized him for supporting communal politics and even launched a campaign against him, which is a separate matter.
In response to growing demands for complete independence, the British mocked India's call for "Purna Swaraj", claiming that Indians were incapable of governing themselves and challenged them to submit reform proposals. Subsequently, in 1928, Motilal Nehru presented the Nehru Report, advocating for Dominion Status and a unified voting system to avoid separate electorates based on religion. However, Muhammad Ali Jinnah dismissed this report, concerned about the potential dominance of Hindu interests, and presented his own set of demands, known as the Fourteen Points. Later, the results of the Simon Commission and the reports from Indian leaders prompted the Round Table Conferences in 1930, 1931, and 1932, which focused on constitutional reforms.
Government of India Act of 1935
The proposed constitutional reforms resulted in the Government of India Act of 1935 which abolished the diarchy system at the provincial level, granting more autonomy to the provinces starting in 1937, while simultaneously introducing a diarchy system at the central level. It proposed a Union of India with authority over key subjects such as foreign affairs, defense, and communications. This Union would have an executive and legislature formed from representatives of both British India and the states. It required a majority from religious communities and a majority of all members present to address significant communal issues.
Provinces would retain powers over all subjects not assigned to the Union and could form groups with their own executives and legislatures to manage certain provincial subjects collectively. This approach aimed to promote self-governance at the regional level while ensuring a cooperative framework within the Union. Additionally, the plan included a provision allowing any province to request a reconsideration of its constitutional arrangements every ten years.
Dalit Political Representation
In the context of social justice, Ambedkar and his colleagues urged the British government to recognize reservations for Dalits as a distinct political group, similar to Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Europeans, rather than merely categorizing them as Hindus. After extensive negotiations and the conclusion of the Round Table Conference, British Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald announced in 1932, that Dalits would have separate electoral representation for 20 years, creating 71 constituencies where they could vote for both their own candidates and general candidates. Ambedkar viewed this "Second Vote" as crucial for safeguarding Dalit interests and ensuring their political recognition. However, these provisions were not fully put into effect because of the Poona Pact of 1932, initiated by Gandhi.
Gandhi's Role
After the First World War, the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 allowed Indians to participate in governance under British rule. During the final phases of the war, Gandhi became actively involved in the independence movement, striving to eradicate untouchability, support women's rights, and improve living conditions, primarily aiming for self-rule and later for complete independence.
Key non-violent movements led by Gandhi include the Champaran Satyagraha in 1917, the Kheda Satyagraha in 1918, support for the Khilafat Movement in 1919, the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920, the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930, and the Quit India Movement in 1942. Gandhi's first large-scale nonviolent protest, the Non-Cooperation Movement, took place from 1920 to 1922. In 1921, to honor Bal Gangadhar Tilak on the first anniversary of his death, Gandhi started the Tilak Swaraj Fund. This initiative aimed to raise one crore rupees to support the freedom struggle and encourage voluntary contributions from Indians. In 1930, the Salt March, or Dandi March, was a Civil Disobedience Movement that involved a lengthy walk to the Arabian Sea to protest the salt tax, symbolizing resistance to British rule and inspiring many to join the cause. When the British refused Gandhi's call for full independence and wanted India to help in the Second World War, Gandhi started the "Quit India Movement" in 1942. Even so, as the war got worse and Japan seemed likely to invade India, Gandhi agreed to support Britain. He made it clear that the British must give India complete independence after the war.
Historians point out that Gandhi’s decision to accept Indian soldiers in the war went against his belief in non-violence. Some supporters of Netaji questioned why Gandhi didn’t back Netaji's political ideas, especially since he supported the war against fascism. Gandhi also faced criticism for his fast against Ambedkar's demand for separate voting rights for Dalits, as well as his views on Hinduism and Dalits. Overall, Gandhi can be looked at in many ways, but his influence was significant enough to change how the British government acted. Unlike Ambedkar, who turned to Buddhism, or Periyar, who opposed religions, Gandhi attempted to reform Hinduism from the inside. As a result, Gandhi was assassinated in 1948 by Nathuram Godse, a member of the RSS, a Hindutva group that disagreed with Gandhi's ideas and methods.
The Cabinet Mission Plan
The Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946, introduced by British Prime Minister Clement Attlee, aimed to facilitate India’s transition to independence and establish a framework for a new constitution. Notably, the plan rejected the demand for a separate Pakistan, proposing instead the grouping of provinces based on religious demographics. Initially, both Jinnah's Muslim League and Nehru's Congress accepted the plan; however, Congress later clarified its rejection of the idea of grouping provinces by religion, which heightened tensions. The Muslim League's subsequent refusal to compromise, driven by fears of Hindu dominance, further contributed to the breakdown of consensus. Ultimately, the plan failed due to disagreements over the grouping of provinces based on religions.
Subsequent reconciliation efforts by the Cabinet Mission were unsuccessful, leading to the establishment of an interim government with Nehru as Prime Minister, but without the participation of the Muslim League. The Muslim League’s declaration of "Direct Action Day" triggered widespread violence and unrest. The significant ideological differences between the Indian National Congress, which advocated for a united secular state, and the Muslim League, which sought a separate Muslim nation following the rejection of province grouping by religion, ultimately played a crucial role in the partition. Following independence, the Indian Independence Act of 1947 granted independence to India on August 15 and to Pakistan on August 14.
Constituent Assembly
Following the recommendations of the Cabinet Mission Plan, the Constituent Assembly of India was elected in 1946 to frame the Constitution of India. The Assembly consisted of 389 members, including 93 from the princely states and 296 from British India, who were elected by the provincial legislatures. On 2 September 1946, the Assembly established the Interim Government of India to facilitate the transition from British India to Independent India. The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held in New Delhi on 9 December 1946. Dr.Sachidanand was elected as the Interim President of the House, and on 11 December 1946, Dr.Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President, with H.C.Mukherjee serving as the Vice President. The Constituent Assembly appointed eight main committees, the most important of which was the Drafting Committee.
On 29 August 1947, the Constituent Assembly constituted a Drafting Committee, headed by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, to prepare the Draft Constitution for India. The new Constitution, which replaced the Government of India Act 1935, was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949 as the basic legal governing document of the country, marking the transition of the Dominion of India to the Republic of India. The Constitution of India came into force on 26 January 1950, celebrated as Republic Day. The Constituent Assembly acted as the Provisional Parliament of India until a new Parliament was constituted in 1952 through the first parliamentary elections.
Echoes of Division
During the turbulent 1940s, Jinnah initially championed Hindu-Muslim unity but grew increasingly disillusioned with the political direction taken by Indian leaders, who prioritized secularism. He feared that without grouping provinces based on religion, Hindu interests would dominate, and he was also concerned about the rising influence of Hindutva. This growing dissatisfaction prompted both Jinnah and Periyar to explore the idea of creating separate nations: Pakistan and Dravidistan. While Jinnah successfully campaigned for the establishment of Pakistan, Periyar's vision for Dravidistan ultimately did not materialize. Although Jinnah, Ambedkar, and Periyar all focused on the welfare of Muslims, non-Brahmins, and depressed classes, along with anti-Hindi movements, they couldn't work together because of differing political motivations.
In 1963, when Nehru enacted an anti-sedition law to prohibit separatism, C.N.Annadurai observed that although the demand for a Dravidian nation had been abandoned, the underlying issues remained unresolved. This raises intriguing questions about a hypothetical scenario in which Pakistan had remained part of India, including how the Indian Constitution might have developed differently. Such a situation could have potentially limited the influence of Hindutva and allowed for greater state autonomy, ultimately shaping a distinct political landscape in the region.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the journey toward Indian independence was characterized by transformative events, ideological conflicts, and the emergence of key figures navigating the complexities of colonial rule. The interplay between various political movements and social justice initiatives shaped the course of India’s struggle for autonomy, ultimately leading to the realization of independence in 1947.
Reference
Gandhi - A Servant Leadership
Purna Swaraj, 1929
Government of India Act, 1935
Cabinet Mission Plan, 1946
History of Indian Constituent Assembly
Indian Constituent Assembly : An Evaluation
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