History of Education and Development in India
Note = This essay provides a brief and non-linear overview of significant events, relying on existing data. It is not a definitive analysis and might lack exhaustive details. For a thorough understanding, readers are encouraged to refer to more comprehensive sources on the topic.
Synopsis
- Introduction
- Vedic Education
- The Charter Act (1813)
- English Education Act (1835)
- Wood’s Recommendation (1854)
- British Government Commissions
- Phule Family (1848)
- The Maharaja of Baroda (1906)
- Indian Education Policy (1913)
- Wardha Scheme (1937)
- Pre-Independence Vision (1940s)
- Post-Independence Vision
- University Education Commission (1948)
- Secondary Education Commission (1952)
- Nehru and Industrialists
- Nehruvian Institutions
- Role of Abul Kalam Azad
- Ambedkar's View On Education
- Women's Education
- Rural Institutions
- The Scenario in Tamil Nadu
- British and Nehru Era Institutions
- Post-Nehru Era
- Kothari Commission (1964)
- National Education Policy (1968)
- NCERT Report (1975)
- 42nd Amendment Act (1976)
- Ishwar Bhai Patel Committee (1977)
- Malcolm Adiseshiah Committee (1978)
- Role of Malcolm Adiseshiah
- National Education Policy (1986)
- United Nations Convention (1989)
- Mandal Commission (1990)
- Ramamurti Review Committee (1990)
- Janardhana Reddy Committee (1992)
- Yashpal Committee (1993)
- Ambani - Birla Committee (2000)
- 86th Amendment Act (2002)
- National Common Minimum Program (2004)
- National Curriculum Framework (2005)
- Sachar Committee (2005)
- National Knowledge Commission (2005)
- Yashpal Committee (2009)
- Right to Education Act (2009)
- Narayana Murthy Committee (2012)
- Higher Education Commission of India (2018)
- National Education Policy (2020)
- Impact of Covid-19
- Conclusion
- Reference
Introduction
Education and development rely on continuous knowledge updates and skill enhancement for employment. Educational institutions aim to boost human knowledge, leading to job opportunities and contributing to individual and national progress. Ultimately, education is vital for self-sufficiency and overall well-being.
In ancient India, only male members of royal and Brahmin families were privileged to receive basic education. Later, the British India Government made efforts to provide formal education to Indians, but due to caste barriers, not everyone gained immediate access. In subsequent years, including Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister, played a crucial role in expanding access to education for all citizens. Let us take a closer look at the journey of "History of Education and Development in India", exploring topics such as commissions, acts, developments, and their results.
Vedic Education
The Vedic period generally spans from 1500 B.C.E. to 500 B.C.E., during which the educational standards were considered to be at their lowest. Vedic education was exclusively taught to members of the royal and Brahmin families. Notably, women from any class were not permitted to join this course. Vedic education, also known as Gurukul or Brahmanical education, resembles monasticism and emphasizes oral learning over written learning. The oral learning of mantras, stories, and parables involves contribution, meditation, and visualization.
The schooling was based on the Guru-Shishya tradition, emphasizing teachings rooted in Sanatana Dharma. Sanskrit served as a medium of instruction. Students, referred to as Shishya, resided in the teacher's math, also known as Guru's math. Along with spiritual learning, the duties of the Shishya included cooking food for the Guru, cleaning the Guru's math, washing the Guru's clothes, taking care of the Guru's cattle, and picking flowers in the garden.
The Aryan society, practicing Vedic education, had rivals in non-Aryan groups such as the Dravidians, Buddhists, Jains, and Ajivika. These non-Aryan societies promoted different lifestyles that emphasized equality for all, in contrast to the Vedic system of education. Despite these differences, Aryan society ultimately maintained dominance by assimilating principles from other societies under various names.
The Charter Act (1813)
When Lord Minto was the Governor General of India, the British Parliament passed the Charter Act of 1813, formalising the East India Company's charter to provide Indians with access to English education. The Act earmarked one lakh rupees every year for the development of literary and scientific knowledge.
This Act led to the establishment of various institutions and schools under the company's control, laying the groundwork for India's English language education system. It also permitted missionaries to promote the English language and teach moral principles. Simply put, the Charter Act of 1813 had a significant impact on the evolution of Indian education.
English Education Act (1835)
After the Charter Act of 1813, there was an internal debate within the company regarding the most effective methods to educate Indians. As a result, the approved funds were not utilised until 1823. To create educational policies for allocating one lakh rupees for education, The Marquess of Hastings, the Governor General of India, appointed a "General Committee of Public Instruction" in 1823, led by Lord Macaulay.
Orientalists on the committee argued that Indians should be educated in their native languages and taught their scriptures and literature, while anglophiles believed that English education was the best option. Despite the debate, Lord Macaulay, the Chairman of the committee in 1835, presented the "Minute on Indian education", stating his view on the subject after undertaking years of research on the Indian educational system.
An upstanding Englishman, Lord Macaulay campaigned for the adoption of a strategy of English education by merging Hindutva with Western principles. He was a strong supporter of the advancement of English education. In addition, he suggested that schools be organized so that children of Indian origin would behave like individuals of British origin.
In 1835, Lord William Bentinck, the Governor General of India, implemented Lord Macaulay's suggestions, resulting in the English Education Act of 1835. Indians with the required English-medium education were permitted to serve in any East India Company department, regardless of caste, religion, or reputation.
Wood’s Recommendation (1854)
The head of the British Government's Board of Control, Charles Wood, presented a recommendation report to Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India, in 1854. This report was crucial in improving English education in the country, with a particular emphasis on science and literature.
Charles Wood proposed that the Government should actively encourage the advancement of women's education, spanning from elementary to university, in a way equivalent to that of men. Furthermore, he proposed that primary schools should embrace the use of native languages, secondary schools should incorporate both English and native languages, and universities should prioritize English as the medium of instruction. He suggested the creation of an education department in every province and the construction of universities in major cities like Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras, following the London universities model. In addition, he proposed the establishment of a minimum of one Government school in every region and providing aid to affiliated private schools.
British Government Commissions
The British Government formed multiple commissions to assess the importance of education in the development of modern India. Let us quickly examine the recommendations offered by each commission.
Hunter Commission (1882) = Examined the sections of Wood's 1854 recommendations that had not been implemented, proposed measures to enhance the basic educational system. It emphasized vocational education and aimed to improve the examination system. It is also known as the Indian Education Commission.
Raleigh Commission (1902) = Recommended higher education reforms, including the introduction of the Senate and Syndicate system. Its reports played a crucial role in enacting the Indian Universities Act of 1904. It is also known as the Indian Universities Commission.
Royal Commission (1912) = Analysed the representation of civil servants from various communities in the provincial public services implemented as part of the Morley-Minto reforms.
Saddler Commission (1917) = Proposed to prevent Government interference in academics, introduced the Honours program, established an inter-university board and standardised the education system like 10+2+3. It is also called the Calcutta University Commission.
Koman Committee (1918) = Useful indigenous medicines were integrated into Western medicine in Madras province, sidelining less scientific indigenous systems.
Hartog Commission (1929) = Identified the causes of stagnation in basic education, emphasized the consolidation of the education system, and advocated for the promotion of technical and business education.
Sargent Commission (1944) = Emphasized pre-primary education for 3 to 6-year-olds and advocated for free, compulsory primary education for those aged 6 to 11 (junior basic) and 11 to 14 (senior basic). It also aimed for universal literacy by 1984.
Phule Family (1848)
Savitribai Phule was a social activist and educator from Maharashtra who played a pivotal role in advancing women's rights in India alongside her husband, Jyotirao Phule. In 1848, Savitribai Phule founded the first modern women's school in Pune, becoming India's first female educator. She is widely credited as the first person to spearhead the feminist movement in Pre-Independent India by advocating for women's rights and education, working towards ending caste prejudice, and promoting gender equality.
The Maharaja of Baroda (1906)
In 1893, Sayajirao Gaekwad III, the Maharaja of Baroda, initiated a groundbreaking scheme to provide free and compulsory elementary education to all children aged 6 to 14 in ten villages in the Amreli District. The success of this initiative led to its expansion, encompassing the entire Baroda state in 1906 and marking it as the pioneering model of its kind in India. Parents were obligated to pay fines for each day their child was absent from school without valid reasons, contributing to a substantial increase in the number of children receiving primary education. By 1910, the state boasted over 2,938 primary schools, serving a diverse demographic, including girls, the disabled, and the untouchables.
Inspired by the Maharaja's progressive educational scheme, G.K.Gokhale introduced a bill related to education in the Imperial Legislative Council. Despite the rejection of the bill, the subject garnered national attention, setting the stage for discussions and reforms in the broader context of education in India. Additionally, it is worth noting that the Maharaja of Baroda played a crucial role by providing funding for Ambedkar's education.
Indian Education Policy (1913)
In 1913, the British Government passed the resolution on education policy. At that time, they disagreed with the idea of compulsory education due to insufficient resources. However, they did provide grants for the voluntary expansion of basic education. The Resolution emphasized that enhancing educational quality and adapting the curriculum were more important than merely increasing the number of institutions.
Wardha Scheme (1937)
In 1937 election, Congress proposed free and compulsory education as one of its manifestos. Following their victory, Congress decided to implement Gandhi's education scheme, which was outlined in Harijan. To further this initiative, they convened the "All India National Educational Conference" in Wardha. Gandhi's followers, including professionals, scholars, leaders, and ministers, collaborated on the conference proposals.
The committee, led by Dr.Zakir Hussain, an eminent educationist and politician, was formed to reform India's primary education system. Based on the Wardha resolutions, the committee published the first comprehensive National basic education scheme, known as the Wardha Scheme, in 1938. The committee made recommendations, including free and compulsory education for children aged 7 to 14 years, mother tongue as the medium of instruction, and an educational focus on productive work alongside academics. Other recommendations were to exclude religious studies, integrate craft, physical, and social work, and instill Indian culture. Gandhi emphasized the exclusion of religious teachings from the Wardha Scheme, asserting that the preached and followed religions contribute to conflict rather than peace. It is important to note that the Wardha Scheme faced strong opposition from the Muslim League and the Dravidar Kazhagam, who cited a lack of technological advancement.
Pre-Independence Vision (1940s)
In India, the British Government introduced English education in the late 18th century and technical education in the early 19th century. Additionally, they established advisory bodies such as the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) and the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) to strengthen the educational system.
CABE was initially established in 1920 but faced dissolution in 1923 due to economic issues. It was reconstituted in 1935 and granted additional powers in 1943. The board monitors the universalization of education, ongoing educational growth, and provides recommendations for girl's and rural education. AICTE, established in 1945, attained statutory status in 1987. It oversees the technical and managerial education system.
Nehru was interested in the socioeconomic development of India even before gaining independence. In the years leading up to Independence, Nehru actively encouraged investors and academicians to establish research organizations for India's growth.
For instance, Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar and Arcot Ramasamy played key roles in the establishment of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in 1942, while Homi Bhabha and JRD Tata were instrumental in founding the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) in 1945. Today, both CSIR and TIFR are renowned globally for their contributions to research.
Post-Independence Vision
Nehru believed that religion and caste were responsible for India's stagnation and underdevelopment. He valued universal education to eliminate divisive attitudes, stimulate scientific thinking, widen India's socioeconomics, improve the humanistic society, reform politics, and educate the poor. Additionally, he advocated for the economic empowerment of women through education, as he believed it would benefit family planning and other rural development initiatives. He also asserted that modernization should be embraced while upholding the core values of a secular society.
In 1940s, several plans were proposed to align with Nehru's vision, including Netaji's National Plan, the Industrialist's Bombay Plan, S.N. Aggarwal's Gandhian Plan, and M.N. Roy's People's Plan. Nehru prioritized logistics for efficient product and service delivery, including the enhancement of seaports, airports, railways, roadways, and India Post. Recognising the significance of journalism, he supported radio, television, and print media as effective communication mediums. He also promoted education, research, art, culture, literature, and India's architectural heritage through various institutions and networks. He emphasized that the Government should stay out of such institutions unless its involvement causes social problems.
Nehru's five-year plans for India's economic growth aimed to increase national self-sufficiency, heavy industrialization, and scientific research. He worked to generate an educated citizenry capable of engaging in research and development. India became a nuclear power through the joint efforts of Nehru's vision, Homi Bhabha's mission, and their insatiable passion for the advancement of research and technology. Nehru supported Homi Bhabha's proposals to refine TIFR and the establishment of the Atomic Energy Commission.
Note - I have shared a list of prime ministers and their respective parties to provide clarity for the readers to understand the post-independence efforts in strategising the educational system in India.
University Education Commission (1948)
In 1948, the Nehru Government established the first commission entirely dedicated to educational advancements. This commission is known as the University Education Commission or the Dr.Radhakrishnan Commission. It was led by the distinguished Oxford University professor Dr.Radhakrishnan and overseen by the Union Minister of Education, Abul Kalam Azad, to assess the standard of education and make the necessary reforms to meet the immediate and long-term demands of the country's education system.
The final report of the commission contributed to the development of India's educational system by addressing issues with the previous system. Its main recommendations included the creation of rural colleges, nationwide volunteer activities in academia, and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14.
Secondary Education Commission (1952)
In 1952, the Nehru Government established the second commission entirely dedicated to educational advancements. This commission is known as the Secondary Education Commission or the Mudaliar Commission. It was led by Dr.Lakshmanaswamy, Vice-Chancellor of Madras University, and overseen by the Union Minister of Education, Abul Kalam Azad, to evaluate the available subjects and recommending enhancements.
The commission's final report contributed to the creation of the "Higher Secondary Education System" in India. The report addressed subjects such as primary education, elementary education, secondary education, and college education. The commission also advocated for the establishment of educational institutions for girls and when required, the use of regional languages. Based on the report, the University Grants Commission (UGC) was established in 1953 to oversee non-technical higher educational institutions. It attained statutory status in 1956.
Nehru and Industrialists
In addition to public institutions, many industrialists, such as J.R.D.Tata, G.D.Birla, B.M.Birla, A.D.Shroff, Lala Shri Ram, Kasturbhai Lalbhai, Jamnalal Bajaj, Walchand Hirachand, Ramkrishna Dalmia, Rm.Alagappan, S.Rm.M family, Karumuttu Thiagarajan, T.V.Sundaram, G.D.Naidu, P.S.G family, and G.K.Devarajulu, established private institutions in various fields to support Nehru's goal of building the country through science and technology. These industrialists were all committed to India's socioeconomic development, aligning with Nehru's ideologies.
To recall how industrialists and Nehru interacted, let's take CECRI as an example. Eminent philanthropist Rm.Alagappan persuaded Prime Minister Nehru to establish the Central Electrochemical Research Institute (CECRI) in Karaikudi. Additionally, he donated 300 acres of land and 1.5 million rupees for the campus in 1948. Prime Minister Nehru referred to Rm.Alagappan as a 'Socialistic Capitalist'.
Nehruvian Institutions
To address poverty and unemployment, science and allied industries are crucial. Therefore, Nehru prioritized technical education and public-sector firms, resulting in a substantial percentage of literate and employable citizens. He advocated for the expansion of the public sector in energy, transportation, healthcare, education, research, technology, steel, irrigation dams, and hydropower.
To name a few, Nehru established laboratories for industrial research, AeSI to strengthen the aviation industry, dams for water and electricity supply, NDS to enhance theatre training, DRDO for defense research, INCOSPAR (later ISRO) for space research, NBT for fostering a culture of book publication and reading, LIC for insurance operations, SAIL for steel production, ONGC for oil and gas exploration, and BHEL for electrical engineering.
Nehru and his visionary team established the IITs, which propelled India's technological advancement, as well as the IIMs, which developed key business management principles. They also created RECs to replicate the IIT model at the regional level, and AIIMS, which emphasized medical research. These institutions hold significant national importance and have earned a strong global reputation, receiving numerous awards. Notably, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, as India’s first Health Minister, played a crucial role in healthcare reforms and in establishing AIIMS as a premier medical care center in the country.
Role of Abul Kalam Azad
The determination of Abul Kalam Azad ensured the execution of Nehru's educational goals. From 1947 to 1958, he served as the Union Minister of Education. Abul Kalam Azad's eleven-year tenure as the education minister laid the foundation for the country's educational advancement in several ways. He determined that all citizens should have equal access to high-quality education, irrespective of religion, and that all educational programs should be governed by a secular constitution.
Mahatma Gandhi praised Abul Kalam Azad as a blend of Aristotle, Plato, and Pythagoras. Nehru included Abul Kalam Azad in his inner circle, just as Gandhi included Nehru in his inner circle. India's socioeconomic path was influenced by Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad's cutting-edge analytical perspective. Abul Kalam Azad was a driving force behind the establishment of IIT, IIM, REC (later NIT), and AIIMS, which are now the country's most prestigious higher educational institutions. He was instrumental in the formation of the UGC, which monitors university quality.
Since 2008, November 11 has been observed as National Education Day, commemorating the birthday of Abul Kalam Azad, the architect of India's educational renaissance. The Maulana Azad Education Foundation (MAEF) was established in 1989 by the Ministry of Minority Affairs to provide egalitarian education to the nation's lower socioeconomic minorities. This program offers incentives for individuals to pursue advanced research and academic activities.
Ambedkar's View On Education
Ambedkar was an educator, economist, and architect of the Indian Constitution, as well as a charismatic political leader. Due to persistent social inequity, the downtrodden were denied the right to education. Ambedkar saw education as the single most powerful tool for liberating people from ignorance and guiding them toward social equality and personal autonomy. To him, empowerment entails giving people more control over their own lives. Ambedkar's priorities, Nehru's vision, and the desires of several other leaders all contributed to the growth of education in India.
Ambedkar believed that education was the only fundamental solution to improve people's quality of life, and it was the right of all. He was instrumental in promoting the importance of education to Indians, particularly to the backward classes and women. He emphasized that a democratic Government should guarantee the right to education for all citizens, irrespective of caste, religion, or race.
Dr.B.R.Ambedkar B.A., M.A., Ph.D., M.Sc., B.L., D.Sc., L.L.D., D.Litt.
Women's Education
After independence, Nehru was concerned about women's education and realized it to be the most effective tool for the country's socioeconomic development, enabling them to face challenges, assume roles and duties, and transform the lives of future generations. As education forms the foundation of women's empowerment, women's education in India has been a challenging task. Women's education leads to the reduction of inequalities, the advancement of their status, and their active engagement in society.
"A well-known phrase attributed to Nehru is that educating a man benefits simply the individual, whereas educating a woman benefits her entire family and the entire nation. To awaken the people, women must be awakened, and when she moves, the family moves, the village moves, and the nation moves. So, by empowering India's women, we strengthen Mother India". Nehru's legacy lives on in Congress Government's that were instrumental in launching numerous programs and campaigns to improve women's access to higher education. Following the Congress, several other Government's attempted to advance women's education.
Integrated Child Development Services, Women in Development, Kishori Shakti Yojana, the Nutrition Programme for Adolescent Girls, Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls, Mid-day Meals Scheme, District Primary Education Programme, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, Udaan, and PRAGATI have been introduced periodically by the Ministry of Women and Child Development to enhance the status of women and children.
Rural Institutions
Dr.T.S.Soundram, the daughter of industrialist T.V. Sundaram, was a doctor by education, a Gandhian by principle, and a social reformer by profession. Despite being of the forward class, she married G. Ramachandran, who belonged to the backward class, against her family's wishes. In 1947, she and her husband established Gandhigram in Dindigul to enhance the lives of rural people. Subsequently, Gandhigram Rural Institute, the first of its kind based on Gandhian principles, was established in 1957 to provide higher education to the rural population. Following the establishment of Gandhigram Rural Institute, several other rural institutes were set up to serve the rural people.
Nehru recognized her academic expertise and appointed her as the Minister of State for Education. During her tenure, she advocated for free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14, highlighted the social significance of rural education, and promoted the National Service Scheme (NSS) for rural development, aligning with Dr.Radhakrishnan's recommendations.
The Scenario in Tamil Nadu
// Mid-day Meals Scheme //
Due to the efforts of the Justice Party Government, Tamil Nadu (Madras Presidency) became the first state in India to implement the mid-day meals scheme. The Justice Party was possibly the first political organization in the world to recognize that feeding school children would enhance the literacy rate. A.Subbarayalu, the first Chief Minister of Madras Presidency, implemented the mid-day meal scheme in a Corporation School in Madras in 1920 and in Sourashtra Boys Higher Secondary School in Madurai in 1925, based on the initiatives of P.Theagaraya, the President of the Justice Party.
The mid-day meals scheme, initiated by the Justice Party Government in the 1920s, was later refined with the addition of nutritious foods by Kamaraj in the 1950s, M.G. Ramachandran (MGR) in the 1980s, and Kalaignar in the 1990s across the state. Tamil Nadu emerged as a pioneer in the mid-day meals scheme, significantly enhancing children's educational participation. The mid-day meals scheme was subsequently adopted at the central level by Prime Minister P.V.Narasimha Rao in 1995, leading to its implementation across other states as well.
// Reservation Schemes //
In the early 1920s, the Justice Party Government introduced two communal orders aiming to provide employment and educational reservations, with the intention of expanding opportunities for non-Brahmins and reshaping the socio-political landscape. Despite facing strong opposition, the implementation of these orders was delayed until 1927, and it was Periyar's persistent efforts that eventually led to the 1928 third communal order, ensuring fair distribution and effective implementation.
However, in a setback, the Madras High Court invalidated the third communal order in the 1950 Champakam Dorairajan Case under Article 16, Clause (2) of the Constitution, a decision upheld by the Supreme Court. Periyar's protest prompted Prime Minister Nehru's Government to introduce Article 15, Clause (4) in 1951, allowing special arrangements for the educational advancement of socially backward classes. This development laid the foundation for the quota system in Tamil Nadu, beginning with reservations of 15% for SC/STs, 25% for BCs, and 60% for OCs. Subsequently, various Chief Ministers adjusted it to 69%, safeguarding these provisions from legal challenges through appropriate legislation.
// Usman Commission //
In response to the dissent voiced by indigenous physicians toward the Koman Commission, the British Indian Government established a new Commission in 1921 within the Madras Presidency. Led by Muhammad Usman of the Justice Party, this fresh Commission was tasked with investigating indigenous medicine. The Usman Commission advocated for increased Government support for indigenous medical education and conducted research on various indigenous medicines. As a result of these recommendations, the School of Indian Medicine was established in Madras Province in 1925.
In addition, Srinivasamurthy, the Commission's Secretary and a member of the Theosophical Society, proposed making Sanskrit as the medium of instruction for academics and promoting Ayurvedic education, particularly benefiting Brahmins. This proposal faced opposition Mohammad Usman, the Commission's Chairman and a member of the Justice Party. Despite these differing perspectives, the committee's report ultimately endorsed Sanskrit instruction in academics. Nevertheless, the Justice Party Government, declined to mandate Sanskrit as the medium of instruction for academics. This decision aimed to ensure equal opportunities and prevent favouritism towards Brahmins.
// Staff Selection Board //
In 1924, the Justice Party Government established the Staff Selection Board (SSB) to appoint Government employees using the roster system. This system ensured representation for different categories within each cadre based on specified percentages. The SSB later transformed into the present-day Tamil Nadu Public Service Commission (TNPSC).
// Modified Scheme of Elementary Education //
Congress has been divided into various groups since its inception, with leaders like Rajagopalachari and Satyamurti dedicated to Sanatana Dharma, while Nehru and Kamaraj focused on science and development. In 1953, Chief Minister Rajagopalachari of Madras State attempted to modify the elementary education system through the "Modified Scheme of Elementary Education". According to this plan, elementary school students would spend only three hours a day in class, dedicating the rest of their time to learning about their parent's businesses.
The Dravidar Kazhagam (DK) and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) opposed this education scheme, viewing it as a means to perpetuate the caste system through clan-based education. Confronted with strong opposition, including dissent from within his own Congress party, Rajagopalachari resigned from his position. Subsequently, in 1954, Rajagopalachari's successor, Kamaraj, assumed office and chose to entirely abandon the education plan.
// Role of Kamaraj //
Later, in the early 1960s, Chief Minister Kamaraj from the Congress played a crucial role in expanding the mid-day meals scheme through a series of initiatives. In this regard, he instituted the distribution of free textbooks and uniforms to disadvantaged children and was instrumental in launching heavy industries such as BHEL, NLC, cement factories, paper mills, and sugar mills that offered employment opportunities for well-educated graduates.
// Dravidian Parties //
Following in the footsteps of the Justice Party, Dravidian parties implemented numerous schemes for the welfare of children from socially backward classes. These initiatives included the upgradation of the mid-day meals scheme into a nutritious food scheme, the supply of eggs in the mid-day meals plan, distribution of free bus passes, distribution of free bicycles, free and compulsory education scheme, the livelihood project for medical services and the enlightenment movement to promote basic education.
In addition, the Dravidian Parties, especially the DMK, played a crucial role in transforming Tamil Nadu into a center of industrialization and education. Several commissions were established to assess and enhance the lives of children from backward classes. As a result, Tamil Nadu is now one of India's most literate states, boasting a rate of 82%, which exceeds the national average of 75%. According to a survey conducted by the business association ASSOCHAM, Tamil Nadu has the highest Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) for basic and upper primary education in India.
// Anti-Hindi Agitations //
Tamil Nadu's agitation against compulsory Hindi can be traced back to the pre-independence era. In 1937, Periyar and Dravidian warriors protested against the introduction of compulsory Hindi education in Madras Presidency schools by Chief Minister Rajagopalachari. Thousands were imprisoned during the three-year battle as they fought to retain the two-language system (English and Tamil). Lord Erskine repealed compulsory Hindi education in 1940 after the Congress administration resigned in 1939 over Viceroy Lord Linlithgow's WW2 declaration. However, there were further agitations against Hindi imposition in 1946, 1965, 1968, 1986, and 2014.
In 1959, Prime Minister Nehru, a leader of the Democratic Party, informed Parliament that English would remain an official language as long as states that didn't speak Hindi desired it. Following Nehru's death and the 1965 anti-Hindi agitation, the DMK came to power in Tamil Nadu and worked tirelessly to safeguard the Tamil language and promote English as a common language. The DMK's language policies benefited Tamil Nadu in various sectors, including education, medicine, automobiles, logistics, and tourism.
British and Nehru Era Institutions
I have created a partial list of academic, research, and council institutions that were established both before Independence, during the British era, and after Independence, during the Nehru era. Kindly click on the provided reference link to learn the names of these institutions.
Post-Nehru Era
Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister and the statesman often credited as the architect of Modern India, passed away on May 27, 1964. Even after his death, India's educational development continued to make rapid strides. After Nehru's death, various Government's established several commissions to analyze and improve India's educational and employment systems.
Indira Gandhi implemented income-based taxes, nationalised banks, initiated the green revolution, and promoted the white revolution. Rajiv Gandhi supported the expansion of telephone networks, advocated for panchayat raj, advanced information technology, and facilitated educational progress. V.P.Singh devised the Mandal Commission, which expanded employment opportunities for backward classes and led to an increase in schooling. P.V.Narasimha Rao transformed India's economic status by advocating Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization (LPG). Manmohan Singh played a crucial role in the formulation of foreign direct investments, the digitalization of governance, and the strengthening of the banking system.
Nehru stated that everything else can wait except agriculture. His vision for agriculture sparked the Green Revolution, a series of technological advances in the late 1960s under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's leadership, significantly contributing to the development of agricultural sector. This revolution included the development of high-yielding seed varieties designed to address food shortages, improve agricultural profitability, and increase productivity. Notably, M.S.Swaminathan, an eminent agronomist from Tamil Nadu, played a crucial role in the Green revolution.
During the 1970s, under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's leadership, Verghese Kurien and Dara Nusserwanji Khurody spearheaded the White Revolution, significantly enhancing the dairy industry. During the 1980s, under Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi's leadership, Sam Pitroda orchestrated the Yellow Revolution, elevating the edible oil industry. Additionally, he played a pivotal role in the IT revolution, advancing technological industry. During the 1990s, under Prime Minister P.V.Narasimha Rao's leadership, Nirpakh Tutej led the Golden Revolution, fostering growth in the horticulture industry. During the tenure of the Congress, a number of revolutionaries achieved noteworthy progress in the fields of education, employment, and economics across several industries.
Kothari Commission (1964)
In 1964, under Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri's leadership, the Kothari Commission, also known as the National Education Commission, was established. It was led by Dr.D.S.Kothari, UGC Chairman, and overseen by M.C. Chagla, the Union Minister of Education, to provide guidance to the Congress Government in enhancing comprehensive education policies.
After meticulously examining 2,400 petitions and 9,000 interviews, the Kothari Commission delivered its final report to the Congress Government in 1966. Famously stating that "our country's future is being shaped in our classrooms", the commission offered valuable insights on education budgeting and financial management. The commission made recommendations such as common school system with free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14 years, promoting regional and international languages through one of the three-language formulas, creating favorable working conditions for teachers, ensuring the educational rights of children with disabilities, emphasizing the importance of girl's education, acknowledging the significance of mathematics and science subjects, focusing on research studies, integrating work experience into education, increasing education funding from 2.9% to 6% of GDP, aligning the national education system with the 10+2+3 structure (a standardised school system with 10 years of primary and secondary education followed by 2 years of junior college and 3 years of higher education), and diversifying course offerings.
National Education Policy (1968)
In 1968, under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's leadership, Triguna Sen, the Union Minister of Education, formulated the National Education Policy, with recommendations primarily derived from the Kothari Commission reports.
The policy aimed to reform the education system by promoting equal opportunities, national unity, cultural advancement, and economic development. It mandated compulsory education for children up to 14 years, emphasized special training for teachers, and introduced a three-language formula in secondary education, incorporating English, Hindi, and regional languages and emphasized the usage of Sanskrit. Additionally, it called for an increase in education spending to six percent of the gross domestic product. The National Education Policy of 1968 had impacts on subsequent policies.
NCERT Report (1975)
In 1961, Nehru Government formed the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) as a Government institution to improve the quality of India's educational system. While distributing textbooks is a notable task, NCERT also contributes to the educational system in other ways, such as curriculum development, teacher training, research, and innovation. NCERT textbooks are not intended for the entire education system, but rather for schools affiliated with the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE).
In 1973, under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's leadership, Saiyid Nurul Hasan, the Union Minister of Education, formed an expert team led by Professor Rais Ahmed, Director of the National Council for Educational Research and Training (NCERT), to develop a curriculum for the 10+2 pattern based on the Kothari commission's recommendations. After refining the contributions of several recommendations, NCERT published a curriculum structure for the ten-year school in 1975. Simply put, D.S.Kothari was the first to advocate for the 10+2+3 system, and Saiyid Nurul Hasan was instrumental in its introduction.
Note - The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) was established in 1995 by Prime Minister P.V.Narasimha Rao, based on the reports of the National Educational Policy of 1986, as a statutory body to oversee standards, procedures, and processes in the field of teacher education. Before 1995, it existed as a Government advisory body within NCERT since 1973.
42nd Amendment Act (1976)
The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976, enacted under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's leadership, introduced significant changes to the Indian Constitution, earning it the nickname "Mini-Constitution". It notably moved several subjects, including education, forests, weights and measures, and wildlife protection, from the state list to the concurrent list, giving both the central and state Government's authority over these areas.
However, the following Janata Party (JP) Government addressed many of the controversial aspects introduced by the 42nd Amendment through the 44th Amendment Act of 1978, left education on the concurrent list, sparking ongoing debate about the optimal balance between central and state control in this crucial sector.
Ishwar Bhai Patel Committee (1977)
In 1977, under Prime Minister Morarji Desai's leadership, the JP Government established the Ishwar Bhai Patel committee. It was led by Ishwar Bhai Patel, Vice-Chancellor of Gujarat University, and overseen by P.C.Chunder, the Union Minister of Education and Social Welfare, to review textbooks and syllabuses of the ten-year school curriculum.
The committee recommended that education should be available to all people, regardless of caste, religion, sex, age, or economic situation, emphasizing the values of honesty, tolerance, and harmony through education, reducing education's bookishness, fostering a logical mindset, supporting cultural traditions, igniting desired social changes, and introducing Socially Useful Productive Work (SUPW) programs whose work and services benefit society.
Malcolm Adiseshiah Committee (1978)
In 1978, the JP Government established the Malcolm Adiseshiah committee, also known as the National Review committee. It was led by Malcolm Adiseshiah, Vice-Chancellor of Madras University, and overseen by P.C.Chunder, the Union Minister of Education and Social Welfare. The commission examined higher secondary education, focusing on vocational education and making recommendations for reforms. Furthermore, to evaluate the report of the Ishwar Bhai Patel commission in order to provide additional perspectives and potential improvements.
In 1978, the committee submitted its final report, "Learning to Do: Towards a Learning and Working Society", offering guidelines for vocational education. These included equipping students with industry-relevant skills through vocational institutes, ensuring educational continuity, international memorandum and contributing to national goals like employment generation, rural development, and adult literacy.
Role of Malcolm Adiseshiah
An accomplished economist hailing from Tamil Nadu, Malcolm Adiseshiah, put forth a strategic plan to the JP Government aimed at eliminating illiteracy. The 1978 National Adult Education Program (NAEP), which aimed to eradicate adult illiteracy among individuals aged 15 to 35, was built upon the strategy. Adiseshiah was a visionary architect of India's educational revolution, laying the groundwork for lasting reforms through initiatives like semester-based assessments, college autonomy, revitalised distance learning programs, and robust vocational courses.
In 1972, Chief Minister Kalaignar entrusted Malcolm Adiseshiah with the crucial task of shaping Tamil Nadu's future through the Tamil Nadu Planning Commission. Adiseshiah crafted a comprehensive 12-year plan (1972-1984) focused on education, science, and technology, laying a critical foundation for the state's development. His vision extended beyond policy, and his dedication to knowledge dissemination led to the establishment of the Madras Institute of Development Studies (MIDS), one of the 24 prestigious research institutions under the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR). Adiseshiah's impact transcended borders through his tireless efforts to share the wisdom of Thirukural with the world. With UNESCO's support, he spearheaded the translation of this ancient Tamil text into English, later championing its dissemination in French, Chinese, Spanish, Russian, and Arabic, ensuring its timeless message resonated across cultures.
Malcolm Adiseshiah dedicated himself to advancing socioeconomic development in the Third World through educational reforms. In 1963, he played a crucial role in establishing UNESCO's International Institute of Educational Planning (IIEP) in Paris, securing funding from the World Bank, Ford Foundation, and the French Government. The IIEP aids educational institutions by providing training, technical assistance, policy research, and knowledge-sharing programs to enhance their planning and management. UNESCO's support for technical academy projects and curriculum framework improvement can be attributed to Adiseshiah's impactful work. In recognition of his significant contributions to education and literacy, UNESCO established the "Malcolm Adiseshiah International Literacy Prize" in 1998.
National Education Policy (1986)
In 1985, under Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi's leadership, an educational committee was convened. This committee comprised delegates from the Union Education Ministry and other notable members, tasked with assessing the 1968 educational policy and formulating a new one. Subsequently, P.V.Narasimha Rao, the Union Minister of Education, launched a new national education policy in response to the publication of the report titled "The Challenge of Education: A Policy Perspective".
The new policy highlighted a holistic approach to education, encompassing various key objectives, including education for women and ST/SC groups, the elimination of inequities, equal educational opportunities, scholarship policies, the strengthening of adult education, emphasizing teacher education and recruiting individuals from underprivileged backgrounds, providing incentives for poor families to send their children to school, the acceptance of the 10+2 pattern as the national education system, the establishment of residential schools named Navodaya Vidyalaya, providing housing facilities for teachers, implementing computer lab classes with focus on science and technology, conducting national-level entrance exams, initiating nutrition programs, implementing the mid-day meals scheme, adopting a student-centered approach, establishing rural universities, and fine-tuning several programs, including Integrated Child Development (ICD), Vocational Rehabilitation Centers (VRC), Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE), and Integrated Education of Disabled Children (IEDC).
The policy promoted the open university system to increase access to higher education for all segments of society, starting with the establishment of the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) in 1985. Additionally, Operation Blackboard, a union-funded program formed in 1987, aimed to provide the bare minimum of services to all primary schools. The program's objective is to furnish primary school pupils with the educational tools and supplies they need to excel in school without encountering any barriers.
United Nations Convention (1989)
In 1989, the United Nations hosted a significant human rights convention that had a profound impact on the lives of children worldwide. With the adoption of the "United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child" (UNCRC) in 1989, Government's around the globe made a historic pledge to the children of the world.
The Convention upholds the inherent value of every human life, specifically focusing on children under 18 years of age. It asserts that every child has the right to survival, protection, and education. India demonstrated its commitment to the goals of the UNCRC by signing and ratifying it in 1992.
Mandal Commission (1990)
In response to the demand for reservations for backward classes in 1978, the JP Government established a commission dedicated to the improvement of these classes. This commission, known as the Mandal Commission, was headed by B.P.Mandal, a Member of Parliament from Madhepura, and overseen by P.C.Chunder, the Union Minister of Education and Social Welfare. The commission undertook the task of identifying socioeconomically and educationally backward classes and assessing the feasibility of implementing reservations in the Union Government employment to address caste inequality and discrimination. In December 1980, the commission submitted its final report, proposing that the advancement of backward classes could be achieved through the provision of reservations in the Union Government employment.
The commission found that 52% of India's population comprises backward classes. In response, the Mandal Commission initially advocated for a 52% reservation of employments in the Union Government for backward classes. However, considering the Supreme Court's earlier ruling stipulating that reservations under Articles 15(4) and 16(4) of the Constitution should not exceed 50%, the Mandal Commission eventually recommended 27% reservations for backward classes in addition to the existing 22.5% reservations for SCs/STs.
After a ten-year hiatus, in August 1990, Prime Minister V.P.Singh, with the support of National Front leaders, including Kalaignar and N.T.R, overcame sectarian obstacles erected by Hindutva groups. Prime Minister V.P.Singh declared 27% reservations in the Union Government employment for backward classes. This proclamation had a significant impact on improving employment opportunities for backward classes, especially in rural areas. The increased employment rates also encouraged students from backward families to pursue higher education, thereby contributing to the improvement of India's literacy rate.
Ramamurti Review Committee (1990)
In 1990, under Prime Minister V.P.Singh's leadership, who also served as the Union Minister of Education, established a review committee headed by Acharya Ramamurti to assess the implementation of the National Education Policy of 1986. The committee, commonly known as the Ramamurti Review committee, submitted its final report in 1991.
The committee proposed various recommendations to enhance the education system, including addressing anomalies, implementing total literacy campaigns, establishing a standardised school management system, promoting education for women, tribes, and rural populations, incorporating moral value education, ensuring the right to education, improving Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE), recognising education as a fundamental human right, remodelling Navodaya Vidyalaya, expanding Operation Blackboard, allocating a minimum of 6% of the GDP for education, integrating Socially Useful Productive Work (SUPW) with diverse disciplines, and allowing self-financing for all managerial and technical education.
Janardhana Reddy Committee (1992)
In 1992, under Prime Minister P.V.Narasimha Rao's leadership, a review committee was established to evaluate the National Education Policy of 1986. The committee, led by N. Janardhana Reddy, the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, was formed based on the reports of the Ramamurthy Review Committee of 1990. The review process was overseen by Arjun Singh, the Union Minister of Education, along with CABE delegates. The committee, often referred to as the Program of Action, submitted its final report in 1992.
The committee made recommendations such as reducing operational gaps between schools, updating ordinary schools with basic learning facilities, paying special attention to the function of Navodaya Vidyalaya, improving Anganwadi worker's social welfare, universalising elementary education, expanding the operation of the Blackboard, providing educational opportunities for neo-literates, improving the dual-track strategy of ensuring elementary and adult education, expanding secondary education facilities, conducting common entrance exams, promoting open learning, boosting the +2 vocational stream, and establishing a state council for higher education.
Yashpal Committee (1993)
In 1993, under Prime Minister P.V.Narasimha Rao's leadership, a committee was established to examine the educational burden placed on students, as well as to explore solutions to lower the burden without compromising the quality of education, including suggestions for continuous self-education. The committee was led by Yashpal, former UGC Chairman, and overseen by Arjun Singh, the Union Minister of Education.
The committee made recommendations such as decentralising the framework of curriculum and textbooks, setting up education committees at the village, block, and district levels, limiting CBSE jurisdiction to Kendra Vidyalaya and Navodaya Vidyalaya, affiliating all other schools with their own state boards, eliminating interview tests for nursery admissions, discontinuing the practice of making kids carry heavy books to school, abolishing primary school homework, reducing the teacher-student ratio to 1:30, increasing the usage of electronic media, and improving teacher training.
Ambani - Birla Committee (2000)
In 1999, under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee's leadership, a committee known as the Ambani-Birla committee was established to evaluate the education sector. It was led by industrialists Mukesh Ambani and Kumar Mangalam Birla, and overseen by Murali Manohar Joshi, the Union Minister of Education. In 2000, the committee submitted a report titled "Report on a Policy Framework for Educational Reforms", outlining a strategy for private investment in rural development, healthcare, and education.
According to the committee, education plays a crucial role in an information and knowledge-based society as it fosters human capital growth, driving technological innovation and influencing the speed of adopting new technologies. The committee made recommendations, including enabling privatization to enhance education systems, establishing more private universities, and permitting foreign direct investment in science and technology.
86th Amendment Act (2002)
The earliest reports on the right to education were the Wardha Scheme (1937) and the Sargent Commission (1944). Following Independence, India was eager to implement the Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE) program, which aimed to provide education to all children up to 14 years old. UEE encompasses the universalization of child provision, enrollment, retention, participation, and academic achievement. In 1949, the Nehru Government appointed the Kher Committee to recommend strategies for implementing a free and compulsory education system within 10 years and for raising the necessary funding. Due to several constraints, it was eventually decided to place education under the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP).
In 1992, the Supreme Court, through the Unni Krishnan vs State of Andhra Pradesh case, affirmed that the right to education is an integral component of the right to life as guaranteed by Article 21 of the Indian Constitution. Aligned with this decision and guided by principles outlined in the Universal Education for All (UEE), the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), and the Supreme Court's directive, the Saikia committee was formed by the United Front (UF) Government in 1996.
The Saikia committee was established with the purpose of investigating the potential inclusion of education as a fundamental right in the Constitution, and it submitted its report in 1997. In response to the committee's recommendations, the United Front (UF) Government introduced the 83rd Amendment Bill in 1997. The primary objective of this bill was to insert Article 21-A into the Constitution, thereby establishing free and compulsory education as a fundamental right for children up to the age of 14.
Subsequently, in 1999, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) Government, led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, appointed the Tapas Majumdar Committee. The committee's mandate was to address concerns related to Article 21-A and contribute further to the advancement of education rights. In 2001, Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee's Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan program aimed at achieving Universal Elementary Education (UEE).
Finally, Article 21-A, which mandates free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14 years, was added through the 86th Amendment in 2002 by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee. The Amendment also replaced Article 45 (Early Childhood Education) of the DPSP and updated Article 51A (Fundamental Duties) to include the new responsibility of parents to educate their children aged 6 to 14 years. In simple terms, the 86th Amendment made education a fundamental right for children aged 6 to 14 years under the Constitution of India and extended the directive for children below the age of 6 under DPSP. Eventually, the Right to Education Act of 2009 incorporated Article 21-A into the Indian Constitution.
National Common Minimum Program (2004)
In 2004, under Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's leadership, the National Common Minimum Programme (NCMP) was created to cover education, health, food, infrastructure, panchayat raj, water resources, and center-state relations.
The NCMP made recommendations such as ensuring education and employment equality for SCs, STs, OBCs, and religious minorities, unleashing the creative energies of all professions for the betterment of society, empowering women politically, educationally, economically, and legally, reversing the past five-year communalisation of the school syllabus, spending at least 6% of GDP on education, imposing charges on all central taxes to fund universal quality basic education, systematising the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme to establish a functional Anganwadi in every settlement and cover all children, introducing a nutritious mid-day meals scheme in primary and secondary schools, ensuring autonomy for higher educational institutions, ensuring that poor people are not denied professional education, supporting NGO efforts in primary education, providing infrastructure for NCC, NSS, physical development, sports, and cultural development, and making academic excellence and professional competence the only criteria for all regulatory body appointments.
National Curriculum Framework (2005)
In 2004, NCERT decided to revise the curriculum in response to a request from Arjun Singh, the Union Minister of Education. The fourth National Curriculum Framework (NCF) was created under the direction of Yashpal in 2005, replacing the curricula of 1975, 1988, and 2000. The 2005 curriculum was designed based on the idea of load-free learning, the 1986-1992 national education policy, and other committee reports.
The NCF made recommendations such as supporting load-free learning by freeing children from the burden of carrying heavier books, making learning a joyful experience, promoting self-esteem and dignity through social relationships, and encouraging non-violence and integrity in society. It aimed to develop a child-centered approach with learner autonomy, enrich subjects by going beyond textbooks, make examinations flexible, and prevent school dropouts by enrolling and retaining children up to the age of 14 years. It is important to note that due to funding, infrastructure, and coordination issues, the NCF, a visionary policy proposing ways to lighten the academic load on students, was unable to produce the desired results.
Sachar Committee (2005)
In 2005, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's leadership saw the establishment of a committee by the Government to evaluate the social, economic, and educational status of the Muslim community in India. The Sachar Committee, led by Justice Rajindar Sachar and overseen by Arjun Singh, the Union Minister of Education, submitted its report in 2006.
According to the committee reports, the alarmingly low representation of Muslim OBCs suggests that they have not yet received the benefits intended for them. The conditions of Muslim OBCs are weaker than those of the general Muslim category, while the conditions of the general Muslim category are lower than Hindu OBCs who significantly benefit from reservations.
The committee advocated for an update to the delimitation of constituencies, stating that some reserved constituencies have a high proportion of Muslims but a low proportion of SCs, whereas some general constituencies have a small proportion of Muslims but a high proportion of SCs. The committee also made recommendations, such as investigating Muslim grievances through a systematic commission, creating a nomination procedure to increase Muslim participation in public bodies, increasing Muslim employment opportunities, connecting madrasas to the higher secondary school board, and recognising madrasa degrees in civil exams.
National Knowledge Commission (2005)
In 2005, under Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's leadership, the National Knowledge Commission (NKC) was established to examine potential education and research policies that could boost India's competitiveness in the knowledge economy. It was led by Sam Pitroda, a renowned communications engineer, and overseen by Arjun Singh, the Union Minister of Education.
NKC made recommendations such as enhancing intellectual property rights, reviewing the operation of existing regulatory bodies, and establishing an Independent Regulatory Authority for Higher Education (IRAHE) to oversee all higher education segments. The commission also proposed encouraging knowledge applications in the agricultural industry, recognising the issues faced by SC/STs, the physically and mentally disabled, and taking appropriate action to promote their participation in the socioeconomic and political development of the country. Furthermore, the NKC recommended promoting knowledge creation in science and technology institutes, stimulating widespread knowledge sharing to maximize public good, assessing higher education accessibility, applicability, and quality, and promoting knowledge skills to make the Government an effective, transparent, and accountable service provider to citizens. The commission also favored changes to higher education that would increase spending, diversify funding, establish 50 national universities, reorganize colleges, and widen access for eligible students.
Yashpal Committee (2009)
In 2009, under Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's leadership, a committee was established to assess higher education bodies such as UGC and AICTE, as well as the status of higher education and research in educational institutions, with the aim of suggesting worthwhile reforms. The committee, led by Yashpal, former UGC Chairman, and overseen by Kapil Sibal, the Union Minister of Education, submitted its report titled "The Committee to Advise on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education" in 2009.
The committee made recommendations such as the formation of the National Commission for Higher Education and Research (NCHER) by combining higher education bodies like UGC and AICTE. It suggested that universities should be held accountable for academic courses, professional bodies should be relieved of academic responsibilities, and deemed universities should either be transformed into full-fledged universities or abandoned. The committee proposed the development of an entrance test similar to the GRE for university education, emphasized the need for regulatory bodies to be independent of politics, recommended the expansion of IITs and IIMs as full-fledged universities, and encouraged diversification in education.
Right to Education Act (2009)
In 2009, under Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's leadership, the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, commonly known as the Right to Education Act (RTE), was enacted in compliance with Article 21-A of the 86th Amendment. The Act specifies that all children aged 6 to 14 years must receive free and compulsory education. In this context, "Free Education" ensures that every child in the specified age group has the fundamental right to receive education without any discrimination and with guaranteed access to schools.
"Compulsory Education" means the Government ensures that children enroll in, attend, and complete elementary school. While many countries set the mandatory age lower than 14, India's focus on ensuring education until age 14 reflects a strong commitment to achieving universal elementary education.
Narayana Murthy Committee (2012)
In 2012, under Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's leadership, a committee was established and headed by Narayana Murthy to examine the feasibility of corporate sector participation in higher education, with the aim of supporting the development of educational research and innovation centers.
The committee made recommendations to encourage corporate involvement in higher education, such as ensuring that existing higher educational institutions adhere to world-class standards and establishing new world-class universities and knowledge centers. The recommendations include granting autonomy in matters of finance, regulation, education, and administration, providing resources to ensure the availability of land, infrastructure, and connectivity, offering fiscal incentives to stimulate funding and investments, creating an environment that permits tension-free mobility for academicians and students to foster collaboration with top institutions abroad, ensuring easy access to scholarship funds, allowing students to pursue their chosen fields of study, enhancing research focus through dedicated funding, supporting sponsored doctoral programs, part-time Master's and Ph.D. programs, hiring experienced corporate professionals as faculty, encouraging faculty development programs, sponsoring expert faculty visits, providing freedom to endorse with foreign accreditation agencies to make Indian colleges competitive, and establishing new facilities in higher educational institutions by the corporate sector, either as Centers of Excellence (CoE) or technology parks.
Higher Education Commission of India (2018)
In 2018, under Prime Minister Narendra Modi's leadership, a bill was introduced with the aim of repealing the UGC, AICTE, and NCTE, with the intention to replace them with the Higher Education Commission of India (HECI). The UGC oversees non-technical higher education, the AICTE oversees technical education and the NCTE is the regulatory body for teacher's education.
The objective of the HECI was to enhance the autonomy of higher educational institutions through a new framework for regulation, accreditation, and professional standards. However, the controversial bill faced significant opposition and was not finalized. Two years later, in 2020, the National Education Policy was published. Recently, the Modi Government announced its intention to rewrite the bill in accordance with the new National Education Policy.
National Education Policy (2020)
In 2015, under Prime Minister Narendra Modi's leadership, Smriti Irani, the Union Minister of Education, established a committee, led by T.S.R.Subramanian, former Cabinet Secretary. The committee was tasked with replacing the national education policy of 1986 with a new policy designed to have a 20-year vision.
In 2017, under Prime Minister Narendra Modi's leadership, Prakash Javadekar, the Union Minister of Education, established a committee, led by Dr.K.Kasturirangan, former Chairman of ISRO. The committee was tasked to evaluate the new educational policy using inputs from the report of the T.S.R.Subramanian committee. In 2019, the Dr.K.Kasturirangan committee submitted its final report.
The National Education Policy of 2020 made recommendations such as reinforcing both traditional and constitutional values, setting up foreign universities in India, centralising the educational system, implementing a three-language formula with a special emphasis on Sanskrit and Hindi, emphasizing multilingualism, ensuring schooling is available to all, replacing the existing 10+2 structure with the 5+3+3+4 structure, introducing public exams for classes 5 and 8, expanding the Right to Education (RTE) up to the age of 18, establishing Multidisciplinary Education and Research Universities (MERU) on par with the IITs and IIMs, developing an Academic Bank of Credits system, promoting online academics, abolishing the Syndicate system, eradicating existing academic regulatory bodies like UGC, discontinuing English as the compulsory medium of instruction, establishing Rashtriya Shiksha Aayog (RSA) to execute a comprehensive perspective plan for professional education, and formulating a caste-based hereditary education system with daytime boarding schools for student participation in play, career, and art.
Notable scholars, researchers, and politicians have criticized the National Education Policy of 2020 for willfully promoting caste-based education, emphasizing Sanatana Dharma teachings, neglecting the advancement of science and technology, and giving preference to Hindi and Sanskrit over other regional languages. They have also criticized the policy for being in opposition to socialism, federalism, secularism, liberalism, equality, brotherhood, and social justice. They urge the Modi Government to transfer education rights from the concurrent list to the state list.
Impact of Covid-19
Closing schools was the most logical way to prevent community spread in response to Covid-19. Due to an increase in Covid-19 cases across the country, there was no in-class instruction for the 2021 academic year. Ramesh Pokhriyal, the Union Minister of Education, issued alternative guidelines for continuing formal education online in April 2020.
The Covid-19 lockdown has impacted millions of students in India, from primary to graduate school. Socially and economically disadvantaged students, who did not have easy access to remote learning during the lockdown, faced a learning gap. Additionally, it is important to note that the Modi Government declined to provide specific data on children's digital content access, interaction, and its impact on learning involvement.
Conclusion
We have seen a brief history of education in India before and after Independence. It is important to remember that following India's Independence, Nehru recognized the importance of education and established various institutions and councils to ensure that students received a top-notch education. After Nehru's death, educational reforms continued, and many committees were established to help the impoverished, mostly under Congress reign.
Education drives socioeconomic progress, resulting in a more civilized and well-informed society. It is the responsibility of the Union and State Government's to ensure that Nehru's foundation is on the right track. At present, notable scholars are concerned that the Modi Government's emphasis on entrance exams and promotion of Sanatana Dharma teachings hinders access to higher education for the poor and marginalised.
Let's hope that future Government's will take the steps needed to move education from the concurrent list to the state list and make higher education more accessible. This could involve initiatives such as eliminating entrance exams, updating the curriculum to include modern science and technology, and eliminating divisive attitudes in academic institutions.
Reference
Royal Commission (1912)
Indian Education Policy (1913)
http://14.139.60.153/bitstream/123456789/334/1/Policy-INDIAN%20EDUCATIONAL%20POLICY%201913.pdf
Sargent Commission (1944)
University Education Commission (1948)
Secondary Education Commission (1952)
Kothari Commission (1964)
National Education Policy (1968)
NCERT Report (1975)
Ishwar Bhai Patel Committee (1977)
Malcolm Adiseshiah Committee (1978)
National Education Policy (1986)
Ramamurti Review Committee (1990)
Janardhana Reddy Committee (1992)
Yashpal Committee (1993)
Common Minimum Program (2004)
National Curriculum Framework (2005)
Sachar Committee (2005)
National Knowledge Commission (2005)
Yashpal Committee (2009)
Narayana Murthy Committee (2012)
National Education Policy (2020)
Impact of Covid-19
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