Tamil Nadu's Language Rights Revolution
Note = This post gives a basic overview based on available information and is not a complete analysis. Readers are encouraged to explore additional sources to understand the topic better.
Synopsis
- Introduction
- Anti-Hindi Imposition Movement
- First Anti-Hindi Imposition Struggle
- Second Anti-Hindi Imposition Struggle
- 15-Year Deadline
- Nehru's Promise
- May or Shall? Continue or Must Continue?
- Third Anti-Hindi Imposition Struggle
- Periyar's Position
- Anti-Hindi Imposition Struggle and the 1967 Regime Change
- Union Government's New Amendment
- Two-Language Policy Resolution
- Why Isn't the Two-Language Policy a Law?
- Annadurai Still Governs
- Tamil Nadu's Exemption in Union Government's 1976 Act
- Fourth Anti-Hindi Imposition Struggle
- From Streets to the Internet
- Conclusion
Introduction
The fundamental objective of "Tamil Nadu's Language Rights Revolution" is to protect Tamil, the mother tongue of Tamils. The Hindi language does not have the strength to be a direct threat to the Tamil language, which has a long and rich history. However, the Union Government has the power to impose Hindi on states. That is why we face the situation of having to struggle against Hindi imposition.
Sanskrit lies hidden behind the Union Government's Hindi imposition. Sanatana lies hidden behind that Sanskrit. Read this article with this understanding. Let us proceed into the article.
Anti-Hindi Imposition Movement
The anti-Hindi imposition struggle is one of the most significant political movements in Tamil Nadu's history. From 1937 onwards, leaders of Dravidian movements including DK (Dravida Kazhagam) and DMK (Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam), along with students, youth, and the general public, have fought together to protect the Tamil language. It would not be an exaggeration to say that this struggle, which began with the feeling of protecting the Tamil language, has gradually evolved into a broader political demand emphasizing state rights and federal principles.
Among the five major slogans of DMK leader Kalaignar, "We will always oppose Hindi imposition, federalism at the center - autonomy in the state" is particularly noteworthy. This slogan, which has had a profound impact on Tamil Nadu's politics, continues vibrantly from Kalaignar's time through M.K. Stalin to Udhayanidhi Stalin. As a result of our language war generals vigorously opposing Hindi imposition, it is an undeniable truth that the Tamil language has gained a distinct identity in many fields today.
First Anti-Hindi Imposition Struggle
Even before the Indian Constitution came into force on 26th January 1950, on 11th August 1937, Chief Minister Rajaji, on behalf of the Congress government ruling the Madras Presidency, announced Hindi education as a compulsory subject in schools. Whilst leaders including Periyar registered their opposition and launched struggles, on 21st April 1938, a government order was issued to introduce compulsory Hindi education in 125 high schools.
Led by the Dravidian movement and the Pure Tamil movement, leaders including Periyar, Anna, Maraimalai Adigal, and Meenambal Sivaraj raised the call for battle, and students joined the struggle. Anna functioned as the commander of Periyar's army. In that struggle, a Class 7 student raised the slogan "Listen, Hindi woman who came running! This is not the land of cowards you sought!" and fought. He later became the renowned political leader Kalaignar. From 1937 to 1940, struggles were carried out at different times in different ways. In these, 1,198 people were arrested; two youth named Thalamuthu and Natarajan lost their lives in police custody.
In opposition to British India forcing Indians to participate in World War II, when Congress passed a resolution, Rajaji resigned from the post of Madras Presidency Chief Minister on 29th October 1939. Later, in February 1940, Governor Erskine withdrew the compulsory Hindi education order.
Second Anti-Hindi Imposition Struggle
On 20th June 1948, the Congress government led by Chief Minister Omandur Ramasamy of independent India's Madras Presidency again issued an order making Hindi education compulsory. After independence, the Union Congress government insisted on implementing Hindi in all states. In opposition to this, the struggle resumed under the leadership of Periyar and Anna. Finally, on 26th December 1948, a compromise was reached, the compulsory Hindi curriculum was cancelled, and it was made an optional subject.
15-Year Deadline
When the Indian Constitution came into force on 26th January 1950, Prime Minister Nehru assured under Article 343 that Hindi would be the official language and English would continue as an associate official language for 15 years (until 26th January 1965).
Nehru's Promise
// Frank Anthony - Nehru //
In 1959, Anglo-Indian nominated member Frank Anthony brought a resolution to Parliament to include English in the Eighth Schedule. However, Prime Minister Nehru advised against pursuing that resolution further, noting that English already had constitutional protection. Nehru warned that his position was not against English; rather, it might create unnecessary controversies and language-related tensions.
In the same parliamentary debate, on 7th August 1959, Nehru assured that English would continue in official use, and also emphasized that English was essential for connecting India with the modern world and scientific progress. Nehru allayed fears prevailing in non-Hindi-speaking regions by firmly stating that Hindi would not be imposed.
// E.V.K. Sampath - Nehru //
Despite Prime Minister Nehru's promise to retain English, in April 1960, President Rajendra Prasad issued an order that Hindi would become India's sole administrative language from 1965. This triggered anti-Hindi imposition struggles led by DK and DMK.
DMK's struggle committee leader E.V.K. Sampath wrote to Nehru, reminding him of Nehru's promise "not to impose Hindi on those who do not want it". In response, Nehru again assured that "Hindi will not be imposed on anyone". Similarly, when President Rajendra Prasad spoke at the Hindi Prachar Sabha in Hyderabad, he assured that "the sentiments of non-Hindi speakers will not be ignored, Hindi will not be imposed on anyone". After receiving these assurances from both Nehru and the President, DMK abandoned the planned struggle.
It is an unfortunate political event that E.V.K. Sampath, who was Anna's close associate and who wrote to Nehru in August 1960 seeking clarity on Hindi imposition, left the DMK in just 8 months, in April 1961.
May or Shall? Continue or Must Continue?
On 10th May 1963, the "Official Languages Act, 1963" was passed in Parliament by the Congress government. In its Section 3, it stated "English language may continue to be used in addition to Hindi".
On behalf of DMK, parliamentarian Anna insisted that "May" in the Official Languages Act should be changed to "Shall"; because "May" means "may continue", meaning a future government could also choose not to continue it. But "Shall" means "must continue".
However, due to the majority strength of the Union Congress government, the law was passed without any changes. At that time, Prime Minister Nehru assured that "May" and "Shall" were the same thing.
Third Anti-Hindi Imposition Struggle
Since the 1963 Official Languages Act was not a permanent guarantee for English to continue, fears spread in Tamil Nadu that Hindi would be fully imposed in competitive examinations, education, and official communications. Against this backdrop, on 25th January 1964, Chinnaswamy from Keezhapazhuvur, Tiruchirappalli, shouted "Long live Tamil, Down with Hindi" and self-immolated.
Meanwhile, following Nehru's death on 27th May 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri, who assumed office as Prime Minister, undertook efforts to prioritize Hindi. As the 15-year period stipulated under Article 343 of the Constitution was ending, fears arose that from 26th January 1965, the Union Government could remove English and make Hindi the sole official language. This intensified anti-Hindi imposition struggles throughout Tamil Nadu.
On 26th January 1965, Anna called for observing Republic Day as a day of mourning. At the same time, students engaged in struggles across the state against the Union Government's language policy. Chief Minister Bhaktavatsalam warned that the government would not tolerate disrespect to Republic Day, and strict action would be taken against students participating in political activities.
Although DMK changed the mourning day to 25th January considering public interest, Anna and 3,000 DMK workers were arrested. On the same day, police launched a severe attack on students who were proceeding in a procession in Madurai, planning to publicly burn Part XVII of the Constitution. The student struggle that erupted due to this severe attack spread across the state.
Various student leaders including Pe.Srinivasan, Ka.Kalimuthu, Na.Kamarasan, Ravichandran, Tiruppur Su.Duraisamy, Sedapatti R.Muthaiah, Durai Murugan, Raja Mohamed, Navalavan, M.Natarajan, and L.Ganesan built and led the anti-Hindi imposition movement in different towns. Specifically, students struggled demanding amendments to Part XVII (Articles 343-351) of the Indian Constitution related to official language, and to declare Tamil also as an official language.
Under the Congress government led by Chief Minister Bhaktavatsalam, student protests were severely suppressed through gunfire on the orders of Police Minister Kakkan; the army was deployed for the first time. Annamalai University student Rajendran died in the firing; many were killed in areas including Pollachi. Professor A. Ramasamy, who participated in the anti-Hindi imposition struggle, has recorded in his book "History of Anti-Hindi Struggle" that in Pollachi, police shot and killed an elderly person, and that bullet pierced his body and also killed a child hiding behind him. Although according to government statistics 70 people died in the 1965 anti-Hindi imposition struggle, the actual number could have been up to 300.
Following DMK's opposition and student struggles, on the insistence of President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, on 11th February 1965, Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri stated that there would be no forced Hindi imposition and that Nehru's pledge would be honored. Based on this, the struggle came to an end.
Periyar's Position
In 1963, the victory of DMK candidate P.U.Shanmugam in the Tiruvannamalai by-election was a great shock to Chief Minister Kamaraj. During the same period, Prime Minister Nehru also faced political setbacks due to the war with China. This created an anti-Congress wave across the country.
With the aim of changing this situation and strengthening Congress again, Kamaraj proposed to Nehru a restructuring plan where Congress chief ministers and important leaders should resign from their posts and engage in party work. The plan called the "Kamaraj Plan" ultimately became a political setback for Kamaraj himself.
In the 1960s, Periyar praised Chief Minister Kamaraj as a "Pachai Tamilian" and gave him his support. Compared to Rajaji's administration, which established Brahmin supremacy, Periyar believed that Kamaraj's rule, which understood the sufferings of Shudras, would benefit the people more and lead to Tamil Nadu's prosperity. Therefore, for the welfare of Tamil people and the progress of the caste abolition movement, Periyar supported Kamaraj's government.
In this situation, Periyar did not accept Kamaraj's sudden resignation through the Kamaraj Plan. Later, in 1965, during the anti-Hindi imposition struggle under Chief Minister Bhaktavatsalam's rule, Periyar issued a statement condemning the violence that occurred. However, it is very important to remember that Periyar remained firm in his fundamental position against Hindi imposition.
Anti-Hindi Imposition Struggle and the 1967 Regime Change
During the period when Anna was making efforts to resolve the "May-Shall" controversy regarding English usage in the Official Languages Act, Tamil students, fearing that education and employment would be affected, spontaneously launched struggles. Student struggles on one side and DMK's struggle on another side proceeded as two separate struggles.
For participating in the anti-Hindi opposition struggle, Kalaignar, arrested under the National Security Act in Chennai, was imprisoned in solitary confinement in Palayankottai jail for about 62 days. Meanwhile, Anna strongly refuted the Congress party's absurd allegations that Anna had planned and directed the student struggle from behind the scenes.
The ground reality was that the DMK led by Anna did not compel students to struggle against the 1965 Hindi imposition. In truth, DMK did not use the student struggle; nor did the student struggle proceed under DMK's guidance. The fact that some students who participated in the struggle later entered politics directly due to their Dravidian fervor is a completely separate event.
The oppressive measures taken by the Congress government against the 1965 anti-Hindi imposition protesters considerably provoked public anger and intensified Tamil language sentiments. Instead of rectifying administrative irregularities and rice shortages, the Congress government prioritized suppressing student protests. DMK's policies, which positioned itself as a movement to improve the lives of Tamils, greatly attracted the public and students. As a result, DMK won a massive victory in the 1967 election, and Anna became Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu. Moreover, in this election which created DMK's young leaders, not only did Congress suffer defeat, but student leader Pe.Srinivasan defeated Congress leader Kamaraj in Virudhunagar. In short, rice shortage, administrative irregularities, and language struggle suppression brought an end to Congress rule in Tamil Nadu.
Union Government's New Amendment
To alleviate tensions prevailing in non-Hindi-speaking states, on 8th January 1968, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi legally ensured through the "Official Languages (Amendment) Act, 1967" that English usage would continue permanently alongside Hindi. That is, Section 3 of the Official Languages Act, 1963 was amended, and the guarantee that English would continue indefinitely remains in force to this day.
Two-Language Policy Resolution
Based on the recommendation provided by the Kothari Education Commission (1964-1966), the Union Congress government introduced a new National Education Policy in 1968, emphasizing the three-language formula.
In the same context, on 18th January 1968, the Official Language Resolution, 1968 was passed in Parliament. Based on this resolution, the Three-Language Formula was recommended to learn Hindi, English, and another Indian language.
In opposition to the parliamentary resolution, on 23rd January 1968, a resolution was passed in the Tamil Nadu Assembly under Anna's leadership that only the two-language policy (Tamil and English) would be followed.
Why Isn't the Two-Language Policy a Law?
Three major measures were taken during Anna's rule. They were,
1. Legal recognition for self-respect marriages (Hindu Marriage (Tamil Nadu Amendment) Act, 1967)
2. Act to change the name of the state to Tamil Nadu (Madras State (Alteration of Name) Act, 1968)
3. Resolution emphasizing the two-language policy (not as a law) (Two-language was adopted as a Policy and not as a Law)
Self-respect marriage has a law, the name Tamil Nadu has a law. But the two-language policy, which is Tamil Nadu's lifeblood, doesn't have a law; it's only a resolution. Because the State Assembly can pass resolutions that contradict Parliament's three-language policy; but cannot enact laws.
Moreover, any law enacted by the State Assembly in opposition to the Union Government's parliamentary policy is unlikely to receive the approval of the President, who is an employee of the Union Government; and it would also create problems for state governance itself. That is why, after examining legal nuances, even if not as a law, Anna passed the two-language policy resolution in the State Assembly against the three-language policy brought by Parliament.
Annadurai Still Governs
To this day, the two-language policy resolution in Tamil Nadu can neither be made into a law nor can subsequent rulers abolish this resolution. The only reason for this is "Annadurai governs this land". I share a recording about this in Anna's own speaking style.
"A year ago, I came to power. In this one year, I have done three important things. One, legal recognition for self-respect marriages. Two, changing the name of our motherland to Tamil Nadu. Three, announcement that Hindi has no place in Tamil Nadu and the two-language policy of Tamil and English. Seeing this, many people become angry and furious. Should we let them be? They think the government should be dissolved. I won't challenge whether you can do it. You can. But along with dissolving it and having someone else come and sit here thinking they should change all these things that Annadurai brought, will immediately come the fear that the people will rise in fury. As long as that fear exists, it means Annadurai governs this land. For as long as that fear exists, whether in power or not, it means Annadurai governs this land," Anna's speech in the Assembly is not an exaggeration to say has historical significance.
Tamil Nadu's Exemption in Union Government's 1976 Act
Due to DMK's continued pressure, in a manner granting exemption to Tamil Nadu, the Union Government formulated the "Official Language Rules, 1976" system in 1976.
That is, as per Rule 1(2), it was specified "They shall extend to the whole of India, except the State of Tamil Nadu", which provided a legal background for Tamil Nadu's two-language policy. Through this, it was also confirmed that the Hindi-English bilingual rules in practice in Union Government offices do not apply to Tamil Nadu.
Fourth Anti-Hindi Imposition Struggle
In 1986, the Union Congress government introduced a new National Education Policy. Based on this, it was insisted that Navodaya Vidyalaya schools, which are residential schools providing education with the three-language formula, should be established across the country for the educational development of poor rural students. DMK stated that there was a danger that Navodaya schools would be opened to forcibly impose the Hindi language.
On 17th November 1986, DMK members burnt Part XVII of the Constitution and protested against the new National Education Policy. As an echo of this struggle, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi assured that Hindi would not be imposed. As part of the compromise, Navodaya schools were not started in Tamil Nadu. It is noteworthy that currently Tamil Nadu is the only state in India without Navodaya schools.
The anti-Hindi imposition struggle that took place in 1986 revived language sentiments in Tamil Nadu. DMK members, students, youth, and various sections took to the streets and struggled. It is noteworthy that the historic struggles that took place in 1938 and 1965 were resurrected in 1986.
Footnote = Kendriya Vidyalaya schools, started in 1963 with 20 schools to provide education for the children of frequently transferred Union Government employees, were gradually established across the country. Their objectives and language policy are fundamentally different from Navodaya Vidyalaya schools.
From Streets to the Internet
In the 1950s-60s, obtaining government employment was considered the main goal for students. At that time, Hindi imposition was seen as a danger that would directly affect employment opportunities. Because of this, struggles erupted across the country, and many including students and youth participated in them. With the intensity of the struggle increasing, loss of lives also occurred. This period is an important phase that created political consciousness combining language and livelihood in Tamil Nadu.
Today, with the continuation of Dravidian movement rule encouraging English learning, international employment opportunities have increased, and Tamils' global connections have also risen. Because of this, unlike before, language is not linked to employment urgency, but now exists in the dimension of sense of identity. Similarly, the form of political opposition has changed with the times, with street struggles transforming into a new form taking place on social media.
Realizing that Tamils' opportunities in the Union Government's UPSC system were decreasing, Dravidian movement governments expanded the TNPSC system to include high-level administrative services as well. This is an example of Kalaignar's practical administrative thinking. Even today, such a practical approach is necessary, because directly opposing the Union Government is not as easy a political activity as it was before.
Conclusion
Tamil Nadu's anti-Hindi imposition history is not just a language struggle; it is a comprehensive cultural politics revolving around state rights, federal principles, cultural identity, and economic opportunities.
From 1937 to today, from street struggles to social media campaigns, Tamil Nadu has continuously strived to protect its language rights. Meanwhile, whilst ambiguities related to "May-Shall" and issues regarding Part XVII of the Act remain unresolved completely, even though this long-drawn language struggle continues as an unfinished saga, we must keep in mind that language protection depends on our vigilance itself.
References
1937, 1948, 1965, 1986 = Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu
1950 = Article 343(2) in Constitution of India
Part XVII = Official Language (343 to 351)
1959 = Nehru's Response to Frank Anthony's Resolution
1960 = Letters Exchanged Between E.V.K.Sampath & Nehru
1963 = Official Languages Act, 1963
1967 = Official Languages Act, 1963 (As Amended, 1967)
1968 = Official Language Resolution, 1968
1968 = Annadurai's Resolution on the Two-Language Policy
1976 = Official Language Rules, 1976
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